The seventh century there were bihg landlords or warrior chief in different regions of the subocontiner. Existing kings ofren regions of the subcontinent. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or sanmantas. They were expected to grinng ffifts for their kings of overlords. Be present at military support. As samanatas gained power and wealthe, they declared themselves to be maha samanta,l mahamandaleshvare the ge=retag lord of a “Circle” or rtegion and os on Sometimes they asserted theirindependence from their overloreds . One such instance was that of the REashrtakutas in the Deccan. Initially Rashtrakutsa in the Deccan. Initially they were subordinate to the Chalukas Of Karnataka. In the mid eights century. Dantidurags, a Rashrtakuta chirf, overthrw his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual challed tiranya garbha (literally, the goled womb.) When theiw ritual was performed with the help of Brahamanas, it was thouth to leasd to the “rebirth “ of the sacrifice as a Kshatriya, evern if he was not one by birth. In other casex, men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms For instance, the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurtjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave up their traditional progessinons and took to arms, successfully eastablishing kingdoms in Karataka and Rajasthan respectively, Admiistration in the Kingdoms Many of theise new ki8nngs adopted high soundinhg titles such as maharaga adhiraja great king, overlord of kings, tribhuvana chakroaritin lord of the three worlds and so on However in spite of such claims, prized area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valey. For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara Pratihara, Rashtrkurta and Pala dynasties foughrt for control over Kanauj. Because trheri were three “parties “ in this long- drtawn conflict, historaians ogten describe it as the tripartiete struggle As we will see (pp. ) rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building demon=strats their power and dresources by building large temples, so when they attacked one another’t wre sometimes extremely rich. You will read more about this in Chater One of the best known of such rulers is Sulten Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan, he reuled from to and extena=ded contrl over parts of central Asia, Iran and the norteh western part of the subocontinent. He raided to subcontinent almost every year his targerts wer wealthey temples, including that of Somnath, Guarat. Much of the wealthe Mahmud carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. Sultan Mahmud was also interested in finding out more about the people he conquered. And entrusted a scholar named al Biruninto write an account of the subcontinent. Te Arabic worl, known as the Kitab al Hind, ri=emains an important surece for historians. He consulted Sanskrit sholars ot prepare this account. Other kings who engaged in wafaree in cthe Chahamanas later known as the |Cghauhans who ruled over the region aroud Delhi and ajmer. they attempted to expand their control to the west and the gujarat and the gahadavalas of western uttar pradesth te best known chahamana rule r was prithviraja who difeated an affghgan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in but lost to him they veryt next year, in Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Choola ruler, became king in and expanded control over most of therrs areas, He alaso reorganized the administration of the empire. Rajaraja,s son RAjendre in continued his and mounrtis of Southeast Asia, developing a nav= fir these expeditions, Splendid Temples and bronze Suulpture Theples and Bronze Suulpture the big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and RAjender and RAjendram are architectural and sculptural marvels, Chola temples ogten became the nuclei of settlements which grew anround them, These The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and RAjendra, are architectural and sculptural carvels. Chola temples often bulti by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectua=ral and sculptural marvels. Chola temples often became the nucle ofd settlements which grew around them. These were centres of craft production. Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others. The produce of theis land crops were grown in a year. In many cases it was necessary to water crops artificially, A variety of methods were used of irrigation. In some areas well were dug. In other p;lacers huge thnks weres constructed to collect painwater. Ramember that irrigation works require planintg organizing labour and resources, maintaining these works and deciding on how water isx in th bge hshared. Most of the naew rulers, as well as peop=le liveng in villages, took an active intrest in these activities. The Administration of the Empire How was the Administration of the Empire How was the administration orgtanised? Settlem=ents of peasants, known as ur, became prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture. Grpups of such vilages formed laftger units called nadu, The village council and the andu performed several administrative funcitions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes. Rich peasants of the Vellala cast exercised pconsiderable control over the faffairs of the nadu nuder trhe supervision of the Velala caste exercised considerable control over the agairs of the nadu under the supervision of the centrol over the affairs of the nadu under trhe supervision of rthe central Chola government. The Chola kings gfave some rich landwners titles like munendavelon a velan or easant serving three kings araiyar (chif ), etc. as markers of respect and entrusted them with important ofices of the state at the cdhtre. Likew the eareliver Sultgans the Khalji and Tughluq mo;narchs appointed military commanders as governors of territoris=es of varyoing sizes. These lands were called iqta nd their holder was called iqrtadar od muqtei, the duty of the Like the earlier Sultans the Khalji and Tuhluq monarcxha appointed military cmanders as governonrs of territories of varying sizes. These lands were called iqrta and their holder was called inqtadar or muqti . the duty of the muqtis was to lead military campaignas ans maintain law and oreder in their iqtras. In exchange for their military sercis,, the muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments as salary. They also paid their sold=irs from these revenues, Conrtrol over muqut was most effe3=ctive if their office was not inheritabeal and if they were assigned iqtas for a short period of time gbefore beihng shifted these harsh conditions of service werae rigorously imposed durintg the reigns of Alauddin Khaljui and Muhanmmad t Accuntants wer appointewd gby trhe as=state to check the amout or the muqtis collected the revenues of their assignma=ents as salary, They sa paid their soldiersa from these revenues. Control over muqtis was most effective if their office was not inheritable and if they were assigned iqtas for a short perios of time before being shifted. These harh conditions of service were rigorously impsed during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughal Accoutants were appointed by the a state to kcheck the amout of revenue collected by the muqtius, Care was taken that the muqte collected only the taxes prescrgbed by the state and that he kept the required number of soldires. As the Delhi Sulatans brought the hinterland of the cirtes under their control, they forced the landed chieftains the samanta aristocarats and rich landlordas to accept their authority. Under Alauddin of land revenue under its own control landed landlords tro accept their authority, Under alauddin Khalji the state brough the asaessment and collection the lacal chittains to lavey a=taxes were cancelled and the wer slo forced to pay taxes, The Sultan’s administrators measured the land and kept careful accounts, Some of the old chiftains and landlors and axxessors, There were trherr types of taxes: on cdultivation called Kharaj and amounting to about per cent of the peasant’s produce, on cattle and on houses, it ti imporatn to remember that large parts of the subcontinent remained outside the control of the Delhi Sultans, it was difcult the control distant provinces like Bengal from Delhin and soon agerr annesing southern ndia, the entire region became It is important to rememgber that large parts of the subcontinent remained outside the control of the Delhi Sultans, it is was difficult ot control distant pro Like the earlier Sultans, the Khaljui and Tughlq monarcs appointed mi8litary appointed military commanders as governors of territorties of varying Sizes. These lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqradar or muqti, The duty f the muqtis was to leasd military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqras. In exchange for their military servie]ces, the muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments as salar, They also paid their soldiers from these revenues, Conntrol over muqtis was most effective if their office was not inheritable and if they were assigned iqtas for a short period inheritable and if they were assign e iqtas ofr a short period of time before being shifted. Thest harsh comditions of service were fitforoulshly imposed duting the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. Accountantys were appointed by the state to check the amount of reverne collected by the muqtis. Care was thken that the muqti collected only the taxes prescrtibed by the state and that he kept the required number of soldires. As the Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of the cities undert their control, they forced the landed chieftains – the samanta samanta arstocerats ans rich chieftains the and rich landlords to accept their authority , Unhder Alauddin Khalji the state brought he assessment and collection lf land revenue under its own control, The rights of the local chieftains to levy taxes were cancelled and they were